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Author: Levine, Phillip B.

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1.	Anderson, Patricia M. Butcher, Kristin F. Levine, Phillip B.
1.	Economic Perspectives on Childhood Obesity Economic Perspectives 27,3 (Fall 2003):30-49. Also: http://ideas.repec.org/a/fip/fedhep/y2003iqiiip30-48nv.27no.3.html Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago Keyword(s): Body Mass Index (BMI); Child Health; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Height, Height-Weight Ratios; Maternal Employment; Motherhood; Obesity; Weight Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Discusses the reason of the interest on obesity in an economic perspective in the U.S. Changes in rates of obesity in the U.S.; Examination in the children's lives; Relationship of maternal employment on the obesity of children. "...We use NLSY data to examine whether mothers who work more hours...are more likely to have obese children." First, we discuss why trends in obesity, and childhood obesity in particular, are of interest from an economic perspective....Next, we document changes in obesity over time in the United States for adults and children....Third, we discuss changes in children's lives over the last three decades that may be causally related to weight gain. In particular, we examine the increase in mothers working outside the home. It may be that mothers who work outside the home may not have time to prepare nutritious low-calorie meals and supervise their children's outdoor, calorie-expending play. We use National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) data to examine whether mothers who work more hours per week, on average, or more weeks over their children's lives are more likely to have obese children. The data contain information on many socioeconomic characteristics of families and multiple observations over time on all of a mother's children. This allows us to control for many observable and unobservable differences between mothers who work and mothers who do not that might be correlated with children's weight. For example, we can examine whether siblings' obesity status differs depending on whether their mother worked more during one sibling's life than the other's. This holds constant all of the (fixed) family characteristics that might be correlated both with children's weight and mothers' labor supply.
	Bibliography Citation Anderson, Patricia M., Kristin F. Butcher and Phillip B. Levine. "Economic Perspectives on Childhood Obesity." Economic Perspectives 27,3 (Fall 2003):30-49.

2.	Anderson, Patricia M. Butcher, Kristin F. Levine, Phillip B.
2.	Maternal Employment and Childhood Obesity In: The Economics of Obesity, E-FAN-04-004, Economic Research Service, USDA, 2004 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: U.S. Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service Keyword(s): Child Care; Child Health; Height; Height, Height-Weight Ratios; Maternal Employment; Modeling, Instrumental Variables; Obesity; Siblings; Socioeconomic Status (SES); Weight Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Using matched mother-child data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY), the authors employ several econometric techniques to identify whether the relationship between maternal employment and childhood overweight reflects more than a spurious correlation. First, they estimate models relating the likelihood of a child’s being overweight on a full range of observable characteristics of the mother and child. Second, they estimate models explaining the change in overweight status over time so as to eliminate any unobserved child-specific and family-specific fixed effects. Finally, they estimate instrumental variables models, using as instruments the variation between States and over time in the unemployment rate, child care regulations, wages of child care workers, welfare benefit levels, and the status of welfare reform in the States. The models were also estimated separately by income, maternal education, and race/ethnicity subgroups.
	Bibliography Citation Anderson, Patricia M., Kristin F. Butcher and Phillip B. Levine. "Maternal Employment and Childhood Obesity." In: The Economics of Obesity, E-FAN-04-004, Economic Research Service, USDA, 2004.

3.	Anderson, Patricia M. Butcher, Kristin F. Levine, Phillip B.
3.	Maternal Employment and Overweight Children Working Paper 281, Joint Center for Poverty Research, Evanston IL, January 2002. Also: http://www.northwestern.edu/ipr/jcpr/workingpapers/wpfiles/anderson_butcher_levine.pdf Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Joint Center for Poverty Research Keyword(s): Breastfeeding; Child Care; Child Health; Height; Maternal Employment; Modeling, Probit; Obesity; Siblings; Socioeconomic Status (SES); Weight Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper investigates whether children are more or less likely to be overweight if their mothers work. The prevalence of both overweight children and working mothers has risen dramatically over the past few decades, although these parallel trends may be coincidental. The goal of this paper is to help determine whether a causal relationship exists between maternal employment and childhood overweight. To accomplish this, we mainly utilize matched mother-child data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth and employ three main econometric techniques, probit models, sibling difference models, and instrumental variables models in this analysis. Our results indicate that a child is more likely to be overweight if his/her mother worked more intensively (in the form of greater hours per week) over the child's life. This effect is particularly evident for children of white mothers, of mothers with more education, and of mothers with a high income level. Applying our estimates to the trend towards greater maternal employment indicates that the increased hours worked per week among mothers between 1975 and 1999 led to about a 0.4 to 0.7 percentage point increase in overweight children, which represents a relatively small share of the overall increase.
	Bibliography Citation Anderson, Patricia M., Kristin F. Butcher and Phillip B. Levine. "Maternal Employment and Overweight Children." Working Paper 281, Joint Center for Poverty Research, Evanston IL, January 2002.

4.	Anderson, Patricia M. Butcher, Kristin F. Levine, Phillip B.
4.	Maternal Employment and Overweight Children NBER Working Paper No. 8770, National Bureau of Economic Research, August 2002. Also: http://papers.nber.org/papers/W8770.pdf Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) Keyword(s): Breastfeeding; Child Care; Child Health; Height; Maternal Employment; Modeling, Probit; Obesity; Siblings; Socioeconomic Status (SES); Weight This paper investigates whether children are more or less likely to be overweight if their mothers work. The prevalence of both overweight children and working mothers has risen dramatically over the past few decades, although these parallel trends may be coincidental. The goal of this paper is to help determine whether a causal relationship exists between maternal employment and childhood overweight. To accomplish this, we mainly utilize matched mother-child data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth and employ three main econometric techniques, probit models, sibling difference models, and instrumental variables models in this analysis. Our results indicate that a child is more likely to be overweight if his/her mother worked more intensively (in the form of greater hours per week) over the child's life. This effect is particularly evident for children of white mothers, of mothers with more education, and of mothers with a high income level. Applying our estimates to the trend towards greater maternal employment indicates that the increased hours worked per week among mothers between 1975 and 1999 led to about a 0.4 to 0.7 percentage point increase in overweight children, which represents a relatively small share of the overall increase.
	Bibliography Citation Anderson, Patricia M., Kristin F. Butcher and Phillip B. Levine. "Maternal Employment and Overweight Children." NBER Working Paper No. 8770, National Bureau of Economic Research, August 2002.

5.	Anderson, Patricia M. Butcher, Kristin F. Levine, Phillip B.
5.	Maternal Employment and Overweight Children Journal of Health Economics 22,3 (May 2003): 477-505. Also: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167629603000225 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Elsevier Keyword(s): Child Care; Child Health; Height; Height, Height-Weight Ratios; Maternal Employment; Obesity; Siblings; Socioeconomic Status (SES); Weight This paper seeks to determine whether a causal relationship exists between maternal employment and childhood weight problems. We use matched mother-child data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) and employ econometric techniques to control for observable and unobservable differences across individuals and families that may influence both children's weight and their mothers' work patterns. Our results indicate that a child is more likely to be overweight if his/her mother worked more hours per week over the child's life. Analyses by subgroups show that it is higher socioeconomic status mothers whose work intensity is particularly deleterious for their children's overweight status. [Copyright 2003 Elsevier]
	Bibliography Citation Anderson, Patricia M., Kristin F. Butcher and Phillip B. Levine. "Maternal Employment and Overweight Children." Journal of Health Economics 22,3 (May 2003): 477-505.

6.	Gustafson, Cynthia Karen Levine, Phillip B.
6.	Less-Skilled Workers, Welfare Reform, and the Unemployment Insurance System NBER Working Paper No. 6489, National Bureau of Economic Research, 1998. Also: http://nber.nber.org/papers/W6489 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) Keyword(s): Benefits; Family Background and Culture; Skilled Workers; Skills; Unemployment Compensation; Unemployment Insurance; Welfare Examines how workers fare in the system, estimating their likelihood of becoming eligible for and collecting benefits; argues that the provision mandating that separations from jobs be involuntary prevents most workers from gaining insurance eligibility; 1957-97; US. Based on National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NSLY) data on family and personal backgrounds and labor market activity of 12,686 people born between 1957 and 1964.
	Bibliography Citation Gustafson, Cynthia Karen and Phillip B. Levine. "Less-Skilled Workers, Welfare Reform, and the Unemployment Insurance System." NBER Working Paper No. 6489, National Bureau of Economic Research, 1998.

7.	Kearney, Melissa S. Levine, Phillip B.
7.	Income Inequality, Social Mobility, and the Decision to Drop Out of High School NBER Working Paper No. 20195, National Bureau of Economic Research, June 2014. Also: http://www.nber.org/papers/w20195 Cohort(s): NLSY79, NLSY97 Publisher: National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) Keyword(s): Dropouts; Educational Attainment; Educational Longitudinal Study (ELS:2002); High School and Beyond (HSB); High School Diploma; Income; Income Distribution; Mobility, Social; National Education Longitudinal Survey (NELS); Socioeconomic Status (SES) This paper considers the role that high levels of income inequality and low rates of social mobility play in driving the educational attainment of youth in low-income households in the United States. Using high school degree status from five individual-level surveys, our analysis reveals that low-socioeconomic status (SES) students, and particularly boys, who grow up in locations with greater levels of lower-tail income inequality and lower levels of social mobility are relatively more likely to drop out of high school, conditional on other individual characteristics and contextual factors. The data indicate that this relationship does not reflect alternative characteristics of the place, such as poverty concentration, residential segregation, or public school financing. We propose that the results are consistent with a class of explanations that emphasize a role for perceptions of one’s own identity, position in society, or chances of success. In the end, our empirical results indicate that high levels of lower-tail income inequality and low levels of social mobility hinder educational advancement for disadvantaged youth.
	Bibliography Citation Kearney, Melissa S. and Phillip B. Levine. "Income Inequality, Social Mobility, and the Decision to Drop Out of High School." NBER Working Paper No. 20195, National Bureau of Economic Research, June 2014.

8.	Kearney, Melissa S. Levine, Phillip B.
8.	Income Inequality, Social Mobility, and the Decision to Drop Out of High School Brookings Papers on Economic Activity (Spring 2016): 333-380. Also: Income Inequality, Social Mobility, and the Decision to Drop Out of High School Cohort(s): NLSY79, NLSY97 Publisher: Brookings Institution Keyword(s): Armed Forces Qualifications Test (AFQT); Educational Attainment; High School and Beyond (HSB); High School Diploma; High School Dropouts; Income Distribution; Mobility, Social; National Education Longitudinal Survey (NELS); Socioeconomic Background It is widely documented that places with higher level of income inequality have lower rates of social mobility. But it is an open question whether and how higher levels of inequality actually lead to lower rates of mobility. We propose that one channel through which higher rates of income inequality might lead to lower rates of upward mobility is lower rates of human capital investment among low-income individuals. Specifically, we posit that greater levels of income inequality could lead low-income youth to perceive a lower rate of return on investment in their own human capital. Such an effect would offset any potential "aspirational" effect coming from higher educational wage premiums. The data are consistent with this prediction: Individuals from low socioeconomic backgrounds are more likely to drop out of school if they live in a place with a great gap between the bottom and middle of the income distribution. This finding is robust in relation to a number of specification checks and tests for confounding factors.
	Bibliography Citation Kearney, Melissa S. and Phillip B. Levine. "Income Inequality, Social Mobility, and the Decision to Drop Out of High School." Brookings Papers on Economic Activity (Spring 2016): 333-380.

9.	Levine, Phillip B.
9.	Spillover Effects Between the Insured and Uninsured Unemployed Industrial and Labor Relations Review 47,1 (October 1993): 73-86. Also: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2524233 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: New York State School of Industrial and Labor Relations, Cornell University Keyword(s): Current Population Survey (CPS) / CPS-Fertility Supplement; Unemployment Duration; Unemployment Insurance This paper considers the effect of changing the level of unemployment insurance (UI) benefits on workers who do not receive UI. It is hypothesized that a spillover effect between insured and uninsured workers exists so that an increase in the UI benefits, which leads to longer durations of unemployment for insured workers, will lead to a reduction in the duration of unemployment for the uninsured. This prediction is tested using data from several March Current Population Surveys and the NLSY. In both samples, it was found that an increase in UI benefits leads to a reduction in the duration of unemployment for uninsured workers. Furthermore, using several years of state level data, the estimated effect on unemployment for the entire labor force was roughly zero when the author allowed for the spillover effect.
	Bibliography Citation Levine, Phillip B. "Spillover Effects Between the Insured and Uninsured Unemployed." Industrial and Labor Relations Review 47,1 (October 1993): 73-86.

10.	Levine, Phillip B.
10.	Three Essays on Unemployment and Unemployment Insurance Ph.D. Dissertation, Princeton University, 1990 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: UMI - University Microfilms, Bell and Howell Information and Learning Keyword(s): Current Population Survey (CPS) / CPS-Fertility Supplement; Treatment Response: Monotone, Semimonotone, or Concave-monotone; Unemployment; Unemployment Duration; Unemployment Insurance This dissertation contains three separate essays. The first essay assesses the ability of a simple search- theoretic model to explain the results of two controlled social experiments. The availability of two independent experiments with substantially different treatments allows for a rigorous test of the model. Parameters of the model are estimated by minimizing the distance between the observed and predicted aggregate response in each experiment, then cross-validated using the observed and predicted treatment response from the other experiment. The model is unable to predict an effect as large as that observed in one of the experiments. In addition, the model cannot explain the degree of individual-specific wage variability found in the data. The relative success of models with and without search intensity is also considered, but the statistical procedures cannot distinguish between them. The second essay documents and attempts to explain the observed disparities between unemployment rates computed from contemporaneous and retrospective data from the Current Population Survey (CPS). The maintained hypothesis is that the discrepancies are consistent with different definitions of unemployment between the two measures. The longitudinal nature of the CPS is exploited to show that more workers with weak labor force attachment are considered unemployed in the contemporaneous rate relative to the retrospective measure. An example is provided indicating that conclusions of earlier studies are unwarranted when retrospective rates are used rather than contemporaneous. Given the different definitions, researchers may find that in certain circumstances the retrospective rate is a more appropriate measure of unemployment. In the third essay, I consider the effect of changing the level of Unemployment Insurance (UI) benefits on workers who do not receive UI. The author presents a model indicating that if UI benefits increase, the offer arrival rate for the uninsured increases and, under the appropriate conditions, uninsured workers find jobs sooner. These predictions are tested using data from several March Current Population Surveys and the NLSY. In both samples, I find that an increase in UI benefits leads to a reduction in the duration of unemployment for uninsured workers. [UMI ADG91-10383]
	Bibliography Citation Levine, Phillip B. Three Essays on Unemployment and Unemployment Insurance. Ph.D. Dissertation, Princeton University, 1990.

11.	Levine, Phillip B. Gustafson, Tara A. Velenchik, Ann D.
11.	More Bad News for Smokers? The Effects of Cigarette Smoking on Labor Market Outcomes NBER Working Paper No. 5270, National Bureau of Economic Research, September 1995. Also: http://nber.nber.org/papers/W5270 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) Keyword(s): Cigarette Use (see Smoking); Employment; Heterogeneity; Household Structure; Labor Market Outcomes; Modeling; Siblings; State Welfare; Wage Differentials; Wages This paper uses data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth to examine the effect of smoking on wages and employment. The panel nature and household structure of these data enable us to implement methods to account for differences in observed and unobserved individual characteristics that may be correlated with both smoking and wages. Changes in wages associated with changes in smoking behavior and models that utilize sibling comparisons are estimated to address the potential heterogeneity problem. Estimates from alternative specifications all indicate that smoking reduces wages by roughly 4-8%. No robust, statistically significant effect on employment is observed. Full-text available on-line: http://nber.nber.org/papers/W5270
	Bibliography Citation Levine, Phillip B., Tara A. Gustafson and Ann D. Velenchik. "More Bad News for Smokers? The Effects of Cigarette Smoking on Labor Market Outcomes." NBER Working Paper No. 5270, National Bureau of Economic Research, September 1995.

12.	Levine, Phillip B. Gustafson, Tara A. Velenchik, Ann D.
12.	More Bad News for Smokers? The Effects of Cigarette Smoking on Wages Industrial and Labor Relations Review 50,3 (April 1997): 493-509. Also: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2525187 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: New York State School of Industrial and Labor Relations, Cornell University Keyword(s): Benefits; Cigarette Use (see Smoking); Wage Differentials Using National Longitudinal Survey of Youth data, a study examines the effect of smoking on wages. The analysis controls for differences in individual characteristics that may be correlated with both smoking and wages, including unobservable person-specific characteristics that are constant over time, and unobservable characteristics that are constant within a family. Estimates from alternative specifications indicate that smoking reduces wages by roughly 4%-8%. Empirical tests of 3 potential explanations for this finding yield no conclusive results. Copyright New York State School of Industrial & Labor Relations 1997. Fulltext online. Photocopy available from ABI/INFORM
	Bibliography Citation Levine, Phillip B., Tara A. Gustafson and Ann D. Velenchik. "More Bad News for Smokers? The Effects of Cigarette Smoking on Wages." Industrial and Labor Relations Review 50,3 (April 1997): 493-509.

13.	Levine, Phillip B. Trainor, Amy B. Zimmerman, David J.
13.	The Effect of Medicaid Abortion Funding Restrictions on Abortions, Pregnancies and Births Journal of Health Economics 15,5 (October 1996): 555-578. Also: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016762969600495X Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Elsevier Keyword(s): Abortion; Benefits, Disability; Child Care; Childbearing; Children; Demography; Fertility; Medicaid/Medicare; Modeling; Morbidity; Mortality; Poverty; Pregnancy and Pregnancy Outcomes; State Welfare; Welfare This paper considers whether state Medicaid abortion funding restrictions affect the likelihood of getting pregnant, having an abortion, and bearing a child. The authors exploit a natural experiment afforded by Supreme Court decisions and employ more traditional multivariate models with alternative fixed effect specifications. An analysis of twelve years of state-level data indicate that restrictions are associated with a reduction in abortions and either no change or a reduction in births, implying fewer pregnancies. Subsequent analysis of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth is consistent with these findings and show the response is concentrated among the low-income population.
	Bibliography Citation Levine, Phillip B., Amy B. Trainor and David J. Zimmerman. "The Effect of Medicaid Abortion Funding Restrictions on Abortions, Pregnancies and Births." Journal of Health Economics 15,5 (October 1996): 555-578.

14.	Levine, Phillip B. Trainor, Amy B. Zimmerman, David J.
14.	The Effect of Medicaid Abortion Funding Restrictions on Abortions, Pregnancies, and Births NBER Working Paper No. 5066, National Bureau of Economic Research, March 1995. Also: http://nber.nber.org/papers/W5066 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) Keyword(s): Abortion; Behavior; Childbearing; Fertility; Government Regulation; Medicaid/Medicare; Poverty; Pregnancy and Pregnancy Outcomes; State Welfare This paper considers whether state Medicaid abortion funding restrictions affect the likelihood of getting pregnant, having an abortion, and bearing a child. Aggregate, state-level data and microdata from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) are applied in the empirical work. Changes in laws resulting from Supreme Court decisions create a natural experiment which is utilized to examine fertility behavior. Multivariate models controlling for state and, in the NLSY, personal characteristics are also estimated using alternative fixed effect specifications. We find that Medicaid funding restrictions are associated with a reduction in both the number of abortions and pregnancies, resulting in either no change or a reduction in births. Full-text available on-line: http://nber.nber.org/papers/W5066
	Bibliography Citation Levine, Phillip B., Amy B. Trainor and David J. Zimmerman. "The Effect of Medicaid Abortion Funding Restrictions on Abortions, Pregnancies, and Births." NBER Working Paper No. 5066, National Bureau of Economic Research, March 1995.

15.	Levine, Phillip B. Zimmerman, David J.
15.	A Comparison of the Sex-Type of Occupational Aspirations and Subsequent Achievement Work and Occupations 22,1 (February 1995): 73-84. Also: http://wox.sagepub.com/content/22/1/73.abstract Cohort(s): Mature Women, NLSY79 Publisher: Sage Publications Keyword(s): Gender Differences; Modeling; Occupational Aspirations; Occupational Attainment; Occupational Choice; Occupations, Female; Occupations, Non-Traditional Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This article further explores the connection between the sex-type of a girl's occupational aspirations and the sex-type of her subsequent occupation achieved in the labor market. The authors replicate previous work by Jerry Jacobs and build on it by using more recent data and an alternative methodology to address this issue. Two cohorts of data from the National Longitudinal Surveys are employed to estimate transition probability matrices between the sex-types of aspired occupations and the sex-types of achieved occupations. Then, multivariate models of the probability of entering a traditional (i.e., female-dominated) or nontraditional (i.e., male-dominated) occupation are estimated The authors find that Jacobs actually overestimated the relationship between aspirations and achievement and that this relationship has, in some ways, grown weaker over time.
	Bibliography Citation Levine, Phillip B. and David J. Zimmerman. "A Comparison of the Sex-Type of Occupational Aspirations and Subsequent Achievement." Work and Occupations 22,1 (February 1995): 73-84.

16.	Levine, Phillip B. Zimmerman, David J.
16.	An Empirical Analysis of the Welfare Magnet Debate Using the NLSY NBER Working Paper No. 5264, National Bureau of Economic Research, September 1995. Also: http://nber.nber.org/papers/W5264. Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) Keyword(s): Migration; Migration Patterns; State Welfare; Welfare This paper examines the extent to which differences in welfare generosity across states leads to interstate migration. Using microdata from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) between 1979 and 1992, we employ a quasi-experimental design that utilizes the categorical eligibility of the welfare system. The pattern of cross-state moves among poor single women with children who are likely to be eligible for benefits is compared to the pattern among other poor households. We find little evidence indicating that welfare-induced migration is a widespread phenomenon. Full-text available on-line at http://nber.nber.org/papers/W5264; and Discussion Paper No. 1098-96, Institute for Research on Poverty, University of Wisconsin - Madison, July 1996, http://www.ssc.wisc.edu/irp
	Bibliography Citation Levine, Phillip B. and David J. Zimmerman. "An Empirical Analysis of the Welfare Magnet Debate Using the NLSY." NBER Working Paper No. 5264, National Bureau of Economic Research, September 1995.

17.	Levine, Phillip B. Zimmerman, David J.
17.	An Empirical Analysis of the Welfare Magnet Debate Using the NLSY Journal of Population Economics 12,3 (August 1999): 391-409. Also: http://www.springerlink.com/content/29ba788gy2t22ff3/ Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Springer Keyword(s): Migration; Migration Patterns; State Welfare; Welfare Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper examines the extent to which differences in welfare generosity across states leads to interstate migration. Using microdata from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) between 1979 and 1992, we employ a quasi-experimental design that utilizes the categorical eligibility of the welfare system. The pattern of cross-state moves among poor single women with children, who are likely to be eligible for benefits is compared to the pattern among other poor households. We find little evidence indicating that welfare-induced migration is a widespread phenomenon.
	Bibliography Citation Levine, Phillip B. and David J. Zimmerman. "An Empirical Analysis of the Welfare Magnet Debate Using the NLSY." Journal of Population Economics 12,3 (August 1999): 391-409.

18.	Levine, Phillip B. Zimmerman, David J.
18.	Children's Welfare Exposure and Subsequent Development Human Resources Abstracts 35,4 (December 2000). Also: JCPR Working Paper No. 130, January 2000. Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Sage Publications Keyword(s): Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Children, Poverty; Hispanics; Household Income; Modeling, Fixed Effects; Mothers, Income; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT); Poverty; Siblings; Variables, Instrumental; Welfare Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. We examine the extent to which children are exposed to the welfare system through their mother's receipt of benefits and its impact on several developmental outcomes. Using data from the matched mother-child file from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY), we find that children's welfare exposure is substantial. By age 10, over one-third of all children will have lived in a welfare household; black, non-Hispanic children face a much higher rate of exposure. Simple correlations suggest a strong negative relationship between maternal welfare receipt and children's outcomes. In this paper, we implement three alternative strategies (instrumental variables, sibling difference, and child fixed-effects models) designed to identify whether this correlation can be attributed to the mother's welfare receipt directly or to other characteristics of mothers who receive welfare, regardless of whether those characteristics are observable evidence of any causal link between maternal welfare receipt and children's developmental outcomes.
	Bibliography Citation Levine, Phillip B. and David J. Zimmerman. "Children's Welfare Exposure and Subsequent Development." Human Resources Abstracts 35,4 (December 2000).

19.	Levine, Phillip B. Zimmerman, David J.
19.	Children's Welfare Exposure and Subsequent Development NBER Working Paper No. 7522, National Bureau of Economic Research, February 2000. Also: http://www.nber.org/papers/w7522 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) Keyword(s): Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Children, Poverty; Hispanics; Household Income; Modeling, Fixed Effects; Mothers, Income; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT); Siblings; Variables, Instrumental; Welfare We examine the extent to which children are exposed to the welfare system through their mother's receipt of benefits and its impact on several developmental outcomes. Using data from the matched mother-child file from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY), we find that children's welfare exposure is substantial. By age 10 over one-third of all children will have lived in a welfare household; black, non-Hispanic children face a much higher rate of exposure. Simple correlations suggest a strong negative relationship between maternal welfare receipt and children's outcomes. In this paper we implement three alternative strategies (instrumental variables, sibling difference, and child fixed effects models) designed to identify whether this correlation can be attributed to the mother's welfare receipt directly or to other characteristics of mothers who receive welfare, regardless of whether or not those characteristics are observable to the researcher. Based on the results of all three estimation strategies, we find little evidence of any causal link between maternal welfare receipt and children's developmental outcomes.
	Bibliography Citation Levine, Phillip B. and David J. Zimmerman. "Children's Welfare Exposure and Subsequent Development." NBER Working Paper No. 7522, National Bureau of Economic Research, February 2000.

20.	Levine, Phillip B. Zimmerman, David J.
20.	Children's Welfare Exposure and Subsequent Development Journal of Public Economics 89,1 (January 2005): 31-56. Also: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047272704000040 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Elsevier Keyword(s): Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Behavior, Antisocial; Behavioral Problems; Child Development; Ethnic Differences; Hispanics; Modeling, Fixed Effects; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT); Racial Differences; Siblings; Variables, Instrumental; Welfare We examine the extent to which children are exposed to the welfare system through their mother's receipt of benefits and its impact on several developmental outcomes. Using data from the matched mother-child file from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY), we find that children's welfare exposure is substantial. By age 10, over one-third of all children will have lived in a welfare household; black, non-Hispanic children face a much higher rate of exposure. Simple correlations suggest a strong negative relationship between maternal welfare receipt and children's outcomes. In this paper, we implement three alternative strategies (instrumental variables, sibling differences, and child fixed effects models) designed to identify whether this correlation can be attributed to the mother's welfare receipt directly or to other characteristics of mothers who receive welfare, regardless of whether or not those characteristics are observable to the researcher. Based on the results of all three estimation strategies, we find little evidence of any causal link between maternal welfare receipt and children's developmental outcomes.
	Bibliography Citation Levine, Phillip B. and David J. Zimmerman. "Children's Welfare Exposure and Subsequent Development." Journal of Public Economics 89,1 (January 2005): 31-56.

21.	Levine, Phillip B. Zimmerman, David J.
21.	Intergenerational Correlation in AFDC Participation: Welfare Trap or Poverty Trap? Discussion Paper No. 1100-96, Institute for Research on Poverty, University of Wisconsin - Madison, 1996. Also: http://www.ssc.wisc.edu/irp/dplist.htm Cohort(s): Mature Women, NLSY79, Young Women Publisher: Institute for Research on Poverty (IRP), University of Wisconsin - Madison Keyword(s): Aid for Families with Dependent Children (AFDC); Earnings; Endogeneity; Family Characteristics; Intergenerational Patterns/Transmission; Modeling, Probit; Welfare Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Several recent studies have shown that daughters whose mothers have participated in the welfare program Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), are themselves more likely to participate in AFDC when they head their own household. Other studies have shown that the earnings of parents and their children are highly correlated across generations. This suggests that any variable correlated with income--such as AFDC participation--will also be correlated across generations. This paper uses data from the original and youth cohorts of the National Longitudinal Surveys to investigate the question of whether the link in mother-daughter welfare participation is a causal relationship, or whether it can be explained by the expected intergenerational correlation in earnings. Several reduced-form probit equations are estimated, and attention is directed to the potential endogeneity of key explanatory variables. The empirical findings suggest that much of the observed correlation in AFDC participation across generations can be explained by the intergenerational correlation of income and other family characteristics.
	Bibliography Citation Levine, Phillip B. and David J. Zimmerman. "Intergenerational Correlation in AFDC Participation: Welfare Trap or Poverty Trap?" Discussion Paper No. 1100-96, Institute for Research on Poverty, University of Wisconsin - Madison, 1996.

22.	Levine, Phillip B. Zimmerman, David J.
22.	The Benefit of Additional High School Math and Science Classes for Young Men and Women: Evidence from Longitudinal Data Journal of Business and Economic Statistics 13,2 (April 1995): 137-149. Also: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1392368 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: American Statistical Association Keyword(s): Armed Forces Qualifications Test (AFQT); Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB); College Graduates; Family Background and Culture; GED/General Educational Diploma/General Equivalency Degree/General Educational Development; High School Curriculum; Labor Market Outcomes; Occupational Choice; Training; Wage Dynamics This paper examines the effects of more technical training in high school on labor market outcomes for men and women. We consider the effect of taking more high school math and science classes on wages, occupational choice, and college major. The results show a positive return to additional courses in math for women who eventually go on to graduate from college. No significant return to math is consistently observed for other groups of workers and high school science courses have no effect on wages for any group of workers. The effect of additional math classes for female college graduates may be attributed to their increased propensity to major in technical fields in college and to enter more technical, male-dominated jobs.
	Bibliography Citation Levine, Phillip B. and David J. Zimmerman. "The Benefit of Additional High School Math and Science Classes for Young Men and Women: Evidence from Longitudinal Data." Journal of Business and Economic Statistics 13,2 (April 1995): 137-149.

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