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Author: Mulligan, Casey B.

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1.	Mulligan, Casey B.
1.	Galton versus the Human Capital Approach to Inheritance Journal of Political Economy 107,6 (December 1999): S184-S224. Also: http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/250108 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: University of Chicago Press Keyword(s): Human Capital; Inheritance; Intergenerational Patterns/Transmission; Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) A century ago, Francis Galton proposed a simple yet powerful model of inheritance. Gary Becker's human capital model is often used to analyze important empirical and policy questions, but does it dominate Galton's from a positive point of view? I derive nine implications of the human capital approach that are distinct from Galton's. Evidence from the PSID, SCF, and NLSY micro data sets as well as results reported in previous literatures suggest that four of the unique implications are refuted. Two implications are verified, and mixed results are obtained for three others. Some extensions of economics recently developed by Becker and others, when applied to inheritance, may improve economics' predictions.
	Bibliography Citation Mulligan, Casey B. "Galton versus the Human Capital Approach to Inheritance." Journal of Political Economy 107,6 (December 1999): S184-S224.

2.	Mulligan, Casey B. Rubinstein, Yona
2.	Selection, Investment, and Women's Relative Wages over Time Quarterly Journal of Economics 123,3 (August 2008): 1061-1110. Also: http://qje.oxfordjournals.org/content/123/3/1061.abstract Cohort(s): NLSY79, Young Women Publisher: MIT Press Keyword(s): Current Population Survey (CPS) / CPS-Fertility Supplement; Gender Differences; I.Q.; Skills; Wage Differentials; Wage Gap; Wage Growth; Wages, Women In theory, growing wage inequality within gender should cause women to invest more in their market productivity and should differentially pull able women into the workforce. Our paper uses Heckman's two-step estimator and identification at infinity on repeated Current Population Survey cross sections to calculate relative wage series for women since 1970 that hold constant the composition of skills. We find that selection into the female full-time full-year workforce shifted from negative in the 1970s to positive in the 1990s, and that the majority of the apparent narrowing of the gender wage gap reflects changes in female workforce composition. We find the same types of composition changes by measuring husbands' wages and National Longitudinal Survey IQ data as proxies for unobserved skills. Our findings help to explain why growing wage equality between genders coincided with growing inequality within gender. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
	Bibliography Citation Mulligan, Casey B. and Yona Rubinstein. "Selection, Investment, and Women's Relative Wages over Time." Quarterly Journal of Economics 123,3 (August 2008): 1061-1110.

3.	Mulligan, Casey B. Rubinstein, Yona
3.	Selection, Investment, and Women's Relative Wages Since 1975 NBER Working Paper No. W11159, National Bureau of Economic Research, February 2005 Cohort(s): NLSY79, Young Women Publisher: National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) Keyword(s): Current Population Survey (CPS) / CPS-Fertility Supplement; Gender Differences; Modeling, Hazard/Event History/Survival/Duration; Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID); Wage Differentials; Wage Gap; Wage Growth; Wages, Women In theory, growing wage inequality within gender should cause women to invest more in their market productivity and should differentially pull able women into the workforce, thereby closing the measured gender gap even though women's wages might have grown less than men's had their behavior been held constant. Using the CPS repeated cross-sections between 1975 and 2001, we use control function (Heckit) methods to correct married women's conditional mean wages for selectivity and investment biases. Our estimates suggest that selection of women into the labor market has changed sign, from negative to positive, or at least that positive selectivity bias has come to overwhelm investment bias. The estimates also explain why measured women's relative wage growth coincided with growth of wage inequality within-gender, and attribute the measured gender wage gap closure to changing selectivity and investment biases, rather than relative increases in women's earning potential. Using PSID waves 1975-93 to control for the changing female workforce with person-fixed effects, we also find little growth in women's mean log wages. Finally, we make a first attempt to gauge the relative importance of selection versus investment biases, by examining the family and cognitive backgrounds of members of the female workforce. PSID, NLS, and NLSY data sets show how the cross-section correlation between female employment and family/cognitive background has changed from "negative" to "positive" over the last thirty years, in amounts that might be large enough to attribute most of women's relative wage growth to changing selectivity bias.
	Bibliography Citation Mulligan, Casey B. and Yona Rubinstein. "Selection, Investment, and Women's Relative Wages Since 1975." NBER Working Paper No. W11159, National Bureau of Economic Research, February 2005.

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