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Author: Seals, Richard Alan

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1.	Nunley, John M. Seals, Richard Alan
1.	The Effects of Household Income Volatility on Divorce American Journal of Economics and Sociology 69,3 (July 2010): 983-1010. Also: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1536-7150.2010.00731.x/full Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: American Journal of Economics and Sociology, Inc. Keyword(s): Divorce; Earnings; Household Income; Income Dynamics/Shocks We extend the literature on the effects of earnings shocks on divorce by identifying separately the effects of transitory and permanent household income shocks and by allowing the shocks to have asymmetric effects across education and racial groups. The econometric evidence suggests negative (positive) transitory household income shocks increase (decrease) the probability of divorce, while there is only weak evidence that positive (negative) permanent household income shocks raise (lower) the probability of divorce. Some differences in the effects of household income shocks on divorce propensities arise for subsamples selected by education and race.
	Bibliography Citation Nunley, John M. and Richard Alan Seals. "The Effects of Household Income Volatility on Divorce." American Journal of Economics and Sociology 69,3 (July 2010): 983-1010.

2.	Seals, Richard Alan
2.	Are Gangs a Substitute for Legitimate Employment? Investigating the Impact of Labor Market Effects on Gang Affiliation Kyklos 62,3 (August 2009): 407-425. Also: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1432262 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Wiley Online Keyword(s): Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB); Delinquency/Gang Activity; Labor Market Demographics; Local Labor Market; Underemployment; Unemployment, Youth Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper adds to the literature estimates of local labor market effects on gang participation. The local unemployment rate is a proxy for the availability of legitimate employment. I use data from the 1997 cohort of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY97) to model the probability of gang involvement. The effect of the local unemployment rate is statistically significant and positive. Robustness checks reveal gang participation of individuals less than sixteen years of age (the legal minimum age for most jobs) is not responsive to the local unemployment rate. However, the effect of the local unemployment rate on sixteen- and seventeen-year-olds is statistically significant and positive, which suggests juvenile gang participation depends on economic incentives. Gang participation among individuals with lower ASVAB scores is more sensitive to the local unemployment rate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
	Bibliography Citation Seals, Richard Alan. "Are Gangs a Substitute for Legitimate Employment? Investigating the Impact of Labor Market Effects on Gang Affiliation." Kyklos 62,3 (August 2009): 407-425.

3.	Seals, Richard Alan
3.	Cognitive Ability and Street Gang Participation: Evidence from the NLSY and Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods Working Paper (2009), Oklahoma City, OK: Meinders School of Business, Oklahoma City University, 2009. Also: http://ocu-stars.okcu.edu/aseals/index_files/Cognitive_Ability_and_Street_Gang_Participation.pdf Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: School of Business (Meinders), Oklahoma City University Keyword(s): Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB); Bullying/Victimization; Cognitive Ability; Delinquency/Gang Activity; Deviance; I.Q.; Neighborhood Effects; Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods (PHDCN); Unemployment, Youth Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. A voluminous literature investigates the social processes that generate gang activity. A parallel literature investigates the linkage between IQ scores and a range of deviant behavior. In this paper, I examine the effects of measured cognitive ability on individual gang participation. I use data from the 1997 cohort of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth and Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods to estimate survival models of gang participation. Results indicate low IQ is a robust predictor of gang participation.
	Bibliography Citation Seals, Richard Alan. "Cognitive Ability and Street Gang Participation: Evidence from the NLSY and Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods." Working Paper (2009), Oklahoma City, OK: Meinders School of Business, Oklahoma City University, 2009.

4.	Seals, Richard Alan
4.	Cognitive Ability and the Division of Labor in Urban Ghettos: Evidence from Gang Activity in U.S. Data Working Paper No. 2011-03. Department of Economics, Auburn University, 2011. Also: http://cla.auburn.edu/econwp/ Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Department of Economics, Auburn University Keyword(s): Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB); Bullying/Victimization; Delinquency/Gang Activity; I.Q.; Neighborhood Effects; Peers/Peer influence/Peer relations; Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods (PHDCN) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. I examine the link between IQ and an individual’s decision to join a gang. Data from the NLSY97 and Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods (PHDCN) are used to estimate time-to-first gang participation. Results from a variety of models which account for sibling effects, neighborhood effects, and non-cognitive traits indicate low IQ is a robust predictor of gang participation. However, the PHDCN results reveal gang participation is affected by a person’s relative IQ, with respect to one’s neighborhood peers. Because the majority of trade and industry is underground, official statistics overlook that neighborhoods where gang activity is prevalent are often at full employment. If gangs provide security and enforce contracts where civil government does not, then low-IQ individuals may have comparative advantage in gang activities. Because gangs are often well-defined social groups within neighborhoods, cognitive traits could be expressed at the neighborhood level through this same economic channel.
	Bibliography Citation Seals, Richard Alan. "Cognitive Ability and the Division of Labor in Urban Ghettos: Evidence from Gang Activity in U.S. Data." Working Paper No. 2011-03. Department of Economics, Auburn University, 2011.

5.	Seals, Richard Alan Stern, Liliana V.
5.	Cognitive Ability and the Division of Labor in Urban Ghettos: Evidence from Gang Activity in U.S. Data Journal of Socio-Economics 44 (June 2013): 140-149. Also: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053535712001151 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Elsevier Keyword(s): Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB); Cognitive Ability; Delinquency/Gang Activity; Neighborhood Effects; Peers/Peer influence/Peer relations; Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods (PHDCN) Hernstein and Murray (1994) famously argued that the division of labor in modern society is determined by individual differences in cognitive ability. This paper shows differences in cognitive ability can also determine the division of labor in poor urban areas. I estimate the effect of IQ on time-to-first gang participation with data from NLSY97 and Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods (PHDCN). Results from the NLSY97, which account for sibling effects and non-cognitive traits, indicate low-IQ is a robust predictor of gang participation. However in the PHDCN, a person's relative IQ, with respect to one's neighborhood peers, determines gang participation. The sorting of individuals with lower intelligence into gangs may also affect beliefs of non-gang members concerning expected returns to human capital investment. Hence, a variety of social pathologies often associated with inner-city ghettos and low IQs of the inhabitants may instead be caused by an absence of the rule of law.
	Bibliography Citation Seals, Richard Alan and Liliana V. Stern. "Cognitive Ability and the Division of Labor in Urban Ghettos: Evidence from Gang Activity in U.S. Data." Journal of Socio-Economics 44 (June 2013): 140-149.

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