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Author: Hill, Jennifer L.

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1.	Berger, Lawrence Marc Hill, Jennifer L. Waldfogel, Jane
1.	Family Leave and Child Outcomes: Evidence from the NLSY Presented: Atlanta, GA, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, May 2002 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Breastfeeding; Child Health; Leave, Family or Maternity/Paternity; Maternal Employment; Pre/post Natal Health Care Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. While family leave policies have been advocated on the grounds that they allow new mothers to take longer maternity leaves, thus promoting better child outcomes, the empirical evidence on the connection between leave policies, leave-taking, and child outcomes is scarce. In this paper, we utilize data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) to estimate both the effect of family leave coverage on leave-taking, and the effect of leave-taking on child outcomes. Our data include detailed measures of family leave coverage, usage, and length of leave, child health and development, and parental behaviors. By shedding light on the pathway from family leave policies to child outcomes, the results prove relevant not only to the literature on the effects of early experiences on child outcomes, but also to the current policy debate about allowing more workers to take leaves and for longer periods of time. Berger, Hill and Waldfogel (2002) find that family leave coverage is associated with more breast-feeding and that children whose mothers did not have family leave coverage scored lower on tests of their cognitive ability at ages 3 and 4. They also document that women who return to work between 0 and 6 weeks following the birth of a child are less likely to breast-feed, to have taken their child to a well baby visit and to have had their child immunized.
	Bibliography Citation Berger, Lawrence Marc, Jennifer L. Hill and Jane Waldfogel. "Family Leave and Child Outcomes: Evidence from the NLSY." Presented: Atlanta, GA, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, May 2002.

2.	Berger, Lawrence Marc Hill, Jennifer L. Waldfogel, Jane
2.	Maternity Leave, Early Maternal Employment and Child Health and Development in the US Economic Journal 115,501 (February 2005): F29-F47. Also: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.0013-0133.2005.00971.x/abstract Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Royal Economic Society (RES) Keyword(s): Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Behavioral Problems; Breastfeeding; Child Development; Child Health; Leave, Family or Maternity/Paternity; Maternal Employment; Re-employment Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper uses data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth to explore links between mothers' returns to work within 12 weeks of giving birth and health and developmental outcomes for their children. OLS models and propensity score matching methods are utilised to account for selection bias. Considerable associations between early returns to work and children's outcomes are found suggesting causal relationships between early returns to work and reductions in breastfeeding and immunisations, as well as increases in externalising behaviour problems. These results are generally stronger for mothers who return to work full-time within 12 weeks of giving birth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
	Bibliography Citation Berger, Lawrence Marc, Jennifer L. Hill and Jane Waldfogel. "Maternity Leave, Early Maternal Employment and Child Health and Development in the US." Economic Journal 115,501 (February 2005): F29-F47.

3.	Berger, Lawrence Marc Hill, Jennifer L. Waldfogel, Jane
3.	Parental Leave Policies, Early Maternal Employment, and Child Outcomes in the U.S. Presented: Boston, MA, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2004 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Breastfeeding; Child Health; Leave, Family or Maternity/Paternity; Maternal Employment; Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper explores links between parental leave policies, the length of time mothers remain at home after giving birth, and cognitive, behavioural, and health related outcomes for children. We use state leave laws and unionization rates as instruments to estimate the effect of (instrumented) early maternal employment on a series of child outcomes in the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth. Health related outcomes include whether the child received preventive "well-baby" care and the frequency of that "well-baby" care in the first year of life, whether the child was breast-fed and the duration of breast-feeding in the first year of life, and whether the child was fully immunized by age 18 months. We also examine the effects of (instrumented) early maternal employment on child cognitive and behavioural outcomes assessed at age 3 or 4. Preliminary results suggest that the shortfall in parental leave coverage in the U.S. may affect child well-being.
	Bibliography Citation Berger, Lawrence Marc, Jennifer L. Hill and Jane Waldfogel. "Parental Leave Policies, Early Maternal Employment, and Child Outcomes in the U.S." Presented: Boston, MA, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2004.

4.	Hill, Jennifer L. Reiter, Jerome P. Zanutto, Elaine L.
4.	A Comparison of Experimental and Observational Data Analyses In: Applied Bayesian Modeling and Causal Inference from Incomplete-Data Perspectives. A. Gelman and X. Meng, eds., New York: Wiley, 2007: 49-60 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79 Publisher: Wiley Online Keyword(s): Birthweight; Child Care; I.Q.; Missing Data/Imputation; Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT); Propensity Scores; Test Scores/Test theory/IRT Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. In this paper, we illustrate the potential efficacy of these types of analyses. The causal question we address concerns the effects on intelligence test scores of a particular intervention that provided very high quality childcare for children with low birth weights.We have data from the randomized experiment performed to evaluate the causal effect of this intervention, as well as observational data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth on children not exposed to the intervention. Using these two datasets, we compare several estimates of the treatment effect from the observational data to the estimate of the treatment effect from the experiment, which we treat as the gold standard. ...We also demonstrate the use of propensity scores with data that has been multiply imputed to handle pretreatment and post-treatment missingness. To our knowledge, these other constructed observational studies performed analyses using only units with fully observed data.
	Bibliography Citation Hill, Jennifer L., Jerome P. Reiter and Elaine L. Zanutto. "A Comparison of Experimental and Observational Data Analyses" In: Applied Bayesian Modeling and Causal Inference from Incomplete-Data Perspectives. A. Gelman and X. Meng, eds., New York: Wiley, 2007: 49-60

5.	Hill, Jennifer L. Su, Yu-Sung
5.	Assessing Lack of Common Support in Causal Inference Using Bayesian Nonparametrics: Implications for Evaluating the Effect of Breastfeeding on Children's Cognitive Outcomes Annals of Applied Statistics 7,3 (September 2013): 1386-1420. Also: https://projecteuclid.org/journals/annals-of-applied-statistics/volume-7/issue-3 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Institute of Mathematical Statistics Keyword(s): Breastfeeding; Cognitive Development; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Statistical Analysis Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Causal inference in observational studies typically requires making comparisons between groups that are dissimilar. For instance, researchers investigating the role of a prolonged duration of breastfeeding on child outcomes may be forced to make comparisons between women with substantially different characteristics on average. In the extreme there may exist neighborhoods of the covariate space where there are not sufficient numbers of both groups of women (those who breastfed for prolonged periods and those who did not) to make inferences about those women. This is referred to as lack of common support. Problems can arise when we try to estimate causal effects for units that lack common support, thus we may want to avoid inference for such units. If ignorability is satisfied with respect to a set of potential confounders, then identifying whether, or for which units, the common support assumption holds is an empirical question. However, in the high-dimensional covariate space often required to satisfy ignorability such identification may not be trivial. Existing methods used to address this problem often require reliance on parametric assumptions and most, if not all, ignore the information embedded in the response variable. We distinguish between the concepts of "common support" and "common causal support." We propose a new approach for identifying common causal support that addresses some of the shortcomings of existing methods. We motivate and illustrate the approach using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth to estimate the effect of breastfeeding at least nine months on reading and math achievement scores at age five or six. We also evaluate the comparative performance of this method in hypothetical examples and simulations where the true treatment effect is known.
	Bibliography Citation Hill, Jennifer L. and Yu-Sung Su. "Assessing Lack of Common Support in Causal Inference Using Bayesian Nonparametrics: Implications for Evaluating the Effect of Breastfeeding on Children's Cognitive Outcomes." Annals of Applied Statistics 7,3 (September 2013): 1386-1420.

6.	Hill, Jennifer L. Waldfogel, Jane Brooks-Gunn, Jeanne Han, Wen-Jui
6.	Maternal Employment and Child Development: A Fresh Look Using Newer Methods Developmental Psychology 41,6 (November 2005), 833-850. Also: http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/dev/41/6/833/ Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA) Keyword(s): Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Maternal Employment; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT); Propensity Scores The employment rate for mothers with young children has increased dramatically over the past 25 years. Estimating the effects of maternal employment on children's development is challenged by selection bias and the missing data endemic to most policy research. To address these issues, this study uses propensity score matching and multiple imputation. The authors compare outcomes across 4 maternal employment patterns: no work in first 3 years postbirth, work only after 1st year, part-time work in 1st year, and full-time work in 1st year. Our results demonstrate small but significant negative effects of maternal employment on children's cognitive outcomes for full-time employment in the 1st year postbirth as compared with employment postponed until after the 1st year. Multiple imputation yields noticeably different estimates as compared with a complete case approach for many measures. Differences between results from propensity score approaches and regression modeling are often minimal. [Editor's Summary] This study uses data from the NLSY longitudinal study to compare outcomes across four different patterns of maternal employment: no work for three years after a child's birth, work after one year post-birth, part time work in the child's first year, and full time work in the child's first year. Findings indicate small but significant negative effects of full time maternal employment during a child's first year in comparison with the postponement of employment for one year post-birth. The authors also discuss the problem of selection bias and missing data in estimating the effects of maternal employment.
	Bibliography Citation Hill, Jennifer L., Jane Waldfogel, Jeanne Brooks-Gunn and Wen-Jui Han. "Maternal Employment and Child Development: A Fresh Look Using Newer Methods." Developmental Psychology 41,6 (November 2005), 833-850.

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