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Author: Butcher, Kristin F.

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1.	Anderson, Patricia M. Butcher, Kristin F.
1.	Reading, Writing, and Raisinets: Are School Finances Contributing to Children's Obesity? Working Paper 2004-16, Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, October 2004. Also: http://chicagofed.org/publications/workingpapers/wp2004_16.pdf Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago Keyword(s): Body Mass Index (BMI); Endogeneity; Nutritional Status/Nutrition/Consumption Behaviors; School Characteristics/Rating/Safety; Weight Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The proportion of adolescents in the United States who are obese has nearly tripled over the last two decades. At the same time, schools, often citing financial pressures, have given students greater access to "junk" foods and soda pop, using proceeds from these sales to fund school programs. We examine whether schools under financial pressure are more likely to adopt potentially unhealthful food policies. Next, we examine whether students' Body Mass Index (BMI) is higher in counties where a greater proportion of schools are predicted to allow these food policies. Because the financial pressure variables that predict school food policies are unlikely to affect BMI directly, this two step estimation strategy addresses the potential endogeneity of school food policies. We find that a 10 percentage point increase in the proportion of schools in a county that allow students access to junk food leads to about a one percent increase in students' BMI, on average. However, this average effect is entirely driven by adolescents who have an overweight parent, for whom the effect of such food policies is much larger (2.2%). This suggests that those adolescents who have a genetic or family susceptibility to obesity are most affected by the school food environment. A rough calculation suggests that the increase in availability of junk foods in schools can account for about one-fifth of the increase in average BMI among adolescents over the last decade.
	Bibliography Citation Anderson, Patricia M. and Kristin F. Butcher. "Reading, Writing, and Raisinets: Are School Finances Contributing to Children's Obesity?" Working Paper 2004-16, Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, October 2004.

2.	Anderson, Patricia M. Butcher, Kristin F.
2.	Reading, Writing, and Raisinets: Are School Finances Contributing to Children's Obesity? Presented: Philadelphia, PA, American Economic Association Annual Meeting, January 2005. Also: http://www.aeaweb.org/annual_mtg_papers/2005/0107_0800_0102.pdf Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: American Economic Association Keyword(s): Body Mass Index (BMI); Nutritional Status/Nutrition/Consumption Behaviors; School Characteristics/Rating/Safety; Weight Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The proportion of adolescents in the United States who are obese has nearly tripled over the last two decades. At the same time, schools, often citing financial pressures, have given students greater access to "junk" foods and soda pop, using proceeds from these sales to fund school programs. We examine whether schools under financial pressure are more likely to adopt potentially unhealthful food policies. Next, we examine whether students' Body Mass Index (BMI) is higher in counties where a greater proportion of schools are predicted to allow these food policies. Because the financial pressure variables that predict school food policies are unlikely to affect BMI directly, this two step estimation strategy addresses the potential endogeneity of school food policies. We find that a 10 percentage point increase in the proportion of schools in a county that allow students access to junk food leads to about a one percent increase in students' BMI, on average. However, this average effect is entirely driven by adolescents who have an overweight parent, for whom the effect of such food policies is much larger (2.2%). This suggests that those adolescents who have a genetic or family susceptibility to obesity are most affected by the school food environment. A rough calculation suggests that the increase in availability of junk foods in schools can account for about one-fifth of the increase in average BMI among adolescents over the last decade.
	Bibliography Citation Anderson, Patricia M. and Kristin F. Butcher. "Reading, Writing, and Raisinets: Are School Finances Contributing to Children's Obesity?" Presented: Philadelphia, PA, American Economic Association Annual Meeting, January 2005.

3.	Anderson, Patricia M. Butcher, Kristin F.
3.	Reading, Writing, and Raisinets: Are School Finances Contributing to Children's Obesity? NBER Working Paper No. 11177, National Bureau of Economic Research, March 2005. Also: http://www.nber.org/papers/W11177 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) Keyword(s): Body Mass Index (BMI); Nutritional Status/Nutrition/Consumption Behaviors; School Characteristics/Rating/Safety; Weight The proportion of adolescents in the United States who are obese has nearly tripled over the last two decades. At the same time, schools, often citing financial pressures, have given students greater access to "junk" foods, using proceeds from the sales to fund school programs. We examine whether schools under financial pressure are more likely to adopt potentially unhealthful food policies. We find that a 10 percentage point increase in the probability of access to junk food leads to about a one percent increase in students' body mass index (BMI). However, this average effect is entirely driven by adolescents who have an overweight parent, for whom the effect of such food policies is much larger (2.2%). This suggests that those adolescents who have a genetic or family susceptibility to obesity are most affected by the school food environment. A rough calculation suggests that the increase in availability of junk foods in schools can account for about one-fifth of the increase in average BMI among adolescents over the last decade.
	Bibliography Citation Anderson, Patricia M. and Kristin F. Butcher. "Reading, Writing, and Raisinets: Are School Finances Contributing to Children's Obesity?" NBER Working Paper No. 11177, National Bureau of Economic Research, March 2005.

4.	Anderson, Patricia M. Butcher, Kristin F. Cascio, Elizabeth Ulrich Schanzenbach, Diane Whitmore
4.	Is Being in School Better? The Impact of School on Children's BMI When Starting Age is Endogenous Journal of Health Economics 3,5 (September 2011): 977-986. Also: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167629611000725#sec3 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79 Publisher: Elsevier Keyword(s): Age at School Entry; Body Mass Index (BMI); Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (ECLS-B, ECLS-K); Elementary School Students; Obesity; Schooling; Weight In this paper, we investigate the impact of attending school on body weight and obesity using a regression-discontinuity design. As is the case with academic outcomes, school exposure is related to unobserved determinants of weight outcomes because some families choose to have their child start school late (or early). If one does not account for this endogeneity, it appears that an additional year of school exposure results in a greater BMI and a higher probability of being overweight or obese. When we compare the weight outcomes of similar age children with one versus two years of school exposure due to regulations on school starting age, the significant positive effects disappear, and most point estimates become negative, but insignificant. However, additional school exposure appears to improve weight outcomes of children for whom the transition to elementary school represents a more dramatic change in environment (those who spent less time in childcare prior to kindergarten). [Note: The estimation sample in this article is drawn from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study – Kindergarten Cohort of 1998 (ECLS-K). The authors also estimated their models using the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 Mother–Child matched file]
	Bibliography Citation Anderson, Patricia M., Kristin F. Butcher, Elizabeth Ulrich Cascio and Diane Whitmore Schanzenbach. "Is Being in School Better? The Impact of School on Children's BMI When Starting Age is Endogenous." Journal of Health Economics 3,5 (September 2011): 977-986.

5.	Anderson, Patricia M. Butcher, Kristin F. Levine, Phillip B.
5.	Economic Perspectives on Childhood Obesity Economic Perspectives 27,3 (Fall 2003):30-49. Also: http://ideas.repec.org/a/fip/fedhep/y2003iqiiip30-48nv.27no.3.html Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago Keyword(s): Body Mass Index (BMI); Child Health; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Height, Height-Weight Ratios; Maternal Employment; Motherhood; Obesity; Weight Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Discusses the reason of the interest on obesity in an economic perspective in the U.S. Changes in rates of obesity in the U.S.; Examination in the children's lives; Relationship of maternal employment on the obesity of children. "...We use NLSY data to examine whether mothers who work more hours...are more likely to have obese children." First, we discuss why trends in obesity, and childhood obesity in particular, are of interest from an economic perspective....Next, we document changes in obesity over time in the United States for adults and children....Third, we discuss changes in children's lives over the last three decades that may be causally related to weight gain. In particular, we examine the increase in mothers working outside the home. It may be that mothers who work outside the home may not have time to prepare nutritious low-calorie meals and supervise their children's outdoor, calorie-expending play. We use National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) data to examine whether mothers who work more hours per week, on average, or more weeks over their children's lives are more likely to have obese children. The data contain information on many socioeconomic characteristics of families and multiple observations over time on all of a mother's children. This allows us to control for many observable and unobservable differences between mothers who work and mothers who do not that might be correlated with children's weight. For example, we can examine whether siblings' obesity status differs depending on whether their mother worked more during one sibling's life than the other's. This holds constant all of the (fixed) family characteristics that might be correlated both with children's weight and mothers' labor supply.
	Bibliography Citation Anderson, Patricia M., Kristin F. Butcher and Phillip B. Levine. "Economic Perspectives on Childhood Obesity." Economic Perspectives 27,3 (Fall 2003):30-49.

6.	Anderson, Patricia M. Butcher, Kristin F. Levine, Phillip B.
6.	Maternal Employment and Childhood Obesity In: The Economics of Obesity, E-FAN-04-004, Economic Research Service, USDA, 2004 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: U.S. Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service Keyword(s): Child Care; Child Health; Height; Height, Height-Weight Ratios; Maternal Employment; Modeling, Instrumental Variables; Obesity; Siblings; Socioeconomic Status (SES); Weight Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Using matched mother-child data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY), the authors employ several econometric techniques to identify whether the relationship between maternal employment and childhood overweight reflects more than a spurious correlation. First, they estimate models relating the likelihood of a child’s being overweight on a full range of observable characteristics of the mother and child. Second, they estimate models explaining the change in overweight status over time so as to eliminate any unobserved child-specific and family-specific fixed effects. Finally, they estimate instrumental variables models, using as instruments the variation between States and over time in the unemployment rate, child care regulations, wages of child care workers, welfare benefit levels, and the status of welfare reform in the States. The models were also estimated separately by income, maternal education, and race/ethnicity subgroups.
	Bibliography Citation Anderson, Patricia M., Kristin F. Butcher and Phillip B. Levine. "Maternal Employment and Childhood Obesity." In: The Economics of Obesity, E-FAN-04-004, Economic Research Service, USDA, 2004.

7.	Anderson, Patricia M. Butcher, Kristin F. Levine, Phillip B.
7.	Maternal Employment and Overweight Children Working Paper 281, Joint Center for Poverty Research, Evanston IL, January 2002. Also: http://www.northwestern.edu/ipr/jcpr/workingpapers/wpfiles/anderson_butcher_levine.pdf Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Joint Center for Poverty Research Keyword(s): Breastfeeding; Child Care; Child Health; Height; Maternal Employment; Modeling, Probit; Obesity; Siblings; Socioeconomic Status (SES); Weight Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper investigates whether children are more or less likely to be overweight if their mothers work. The prevalence of both overweight children and working mothers has risen dramatically over the past few decades, although these parallel trends may be coincidental. The goal of this paper is to help determine whether a causal relationship exists between maternal employment and childhood overweight. To accomplish this, we mainly utilize matched mother-child data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth and employ three main econometric techniques, probit models, sibling difference models, and instrumental variables models in this analysis. Our results indicate that a child is more likely to be overweight if his/her mother worked more intensively (in the form of greater hours per week) over the child's life. This effect is particularly evident for children of white mothers, of mothers with more education, and of mothers with a high income level. Applying our estimates to the trend towards greater maternal employment indicates that the increased hours worked per week among mothers between 1975 and 1999 led to about a 0.4 to 0.7 percentage point increase in overweight children, which represents a relatively small share of the overall increase.
	Bibliography Citation Anderson, Patricia M., Kristin F. Butcher and Phillip B. Levine. "Maternal Employment and Overweight Children." Working Paper 281, Joint Center for Poverty Research, Evanston IL, January 2002.

8.	Anderson, Patricia M. Butcher, Kristin F. Levine, Phillip B.
8.	Maternal Employment and Overweight Children NBER Working Paper No. 8770, National Bureau of Economic Research, August 2002. Also: http://papers.nber.org/papers/W8770.pdf Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) Keyword(s): Breastfeeding; Child Care; Child Health; Height; Maternal Employment; Modeling, Probit; Obesity; Siblings; Socioeconomic Status (SES); Weight This paper investigates whether children are more or less likely to be overweight if their mothers work. The prevalence of both overweight children and working mothers has risen dramatically over the past few decades, although these parallel trends may be coincidental. The goal of this paper is to help determine whether a causal relationship exists between maternal employment and childhood overweight. To accomplish this, we mainly utilize matched mother-child data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth and employ three main econometric techniques, probit models, sibling difference models, and instrumental variables models in this analysis. Our results indicate that a child is more likely to be overweight if his/her mother worked more intensively (in the form of greater hours per week) over the child's life. This effect is particularly evident for children of white mothers, of mothers with more education, and of mothers with a high income level. Applying our estimates to the trend towards greater maternal employment indicates that the increased hours worked per week among mothers between 1975 and 1999 led to about a 0.4 to 0.7 percentage point increase in overweight children, which represents a relatively small share of the overall increase.
	Bibliography Citation Anderson, Patricia M., Kristin F. Butcher and Phillip B. Levine. "Maternal Employment and Overweight Children." NBER Working Paper No. 8770, National Bureau of Economic Research, August 2002.

9.	Anderson, Patricia M. Butcher, Kristin F. Levine, Phillip B.
9.	Maternal Employment and Overweight Children Journal of Health Economics 22,3 (May 2003): 477-505. Also: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167629603000225 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Elsevier Keyword(s): Child Care; Child Health; Height; Height, Height-Weight Ratios; Maternal Employment; Obesity; Siblings; Socioeconomic Status (SES); Weight This paper seeks to determine whether a causal relationship exists between maternal employment and childhood weight problems. We use matched mother-child data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) and employ econometric techniques to control for observable and unobservable differences across individuals and families that may influence both children's weight and their mothers' work patterns. Our results indicate that a child is more likely to be overweight if his/her mother worked more hours per week over the child's life. Analyses by subgroups show that it is higher socioeconomic status mothers whose work intensity is particularly deleterious for their children's overweight status. [Copyright 2003 Elsevier]
	Bibliography Citation Anderson, Patricia M., Kristin F. Butcher and Phillip B. Levine. "Maternal Employment and Overweight Children." Journal of Health Economics 22,3 (May 2003): 477-505.

10.	Butcher, Kristin F. Case, Anne
10.	The Effect of Sibling Sex Composition on Women's Education and Earnings Quarterly Journal of Economics 109,3 (August 1994): 531-563. Also: http://qje.oxfordjournals.org/content/109/3/531.abstract Cohort(s): Mature Women Publisher: Wiley Online Keyword(s): Brothers; Current Population Survey (CPS) / CPS-Fertility Supplement; Economics of Discrimination; Economics of Gender; Economics of Minorities; Economics, Demographic; Human Capital; Labor Market Demographics; Occupational Choice; Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID); Siblings; Training, Occupational; Training, On-the-Job Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper documents the impact of siblings on the education of men and women born in the United States between 1920 and 1965. We examine the effect of the number and sex composition of a boy or girl's siblings on that child's educational attainment. We find that throughout the century women's educational choices have been systematically affected by the sex composition of her siblings, and that men's choices have not. Women raised only with brothers have received on average significantly more education than women raised with any sisters, controlling for household size. Since sibling sex composition affects women's educational attainmentand plausibly may be unrelated to other determinants of earnings, it may provide a useful instrument for education in earnings functions for women. Our results suggest that standard estimates significantly underestimate the return to schooling for women.
	Bibliography Citation Butcher, Kristin F. and Anne Case. "The Effect of Sibling Sex Composition on Women's Education and Earnings." Quarterly Journal of Economics 109,3 (August 1994): 531-563.

11.	Butcher, Kristin F. Piehl, Anne Morrison
11.	Cross-City Evidence on the Relationship between Immigration and Crime Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 17,3 (Summer 1998): 457-493. Also: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/%28SICI%291520-6688%28199822%2917:3%3C457::AID-PAM4%3E3.0.CO;2-F/abstract Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Wiley Online Keyword(s): Crime; Current Population Survey (CPS) / CPS-Fertility Supplement; Delinquency/Gang Activity; Ethnic Differences; Ethnic Groups/Ethnicity; Illegal Activities; Immigrants; Migration Patterns Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Public concerns about the costs of immigration and crime are high, and sometimes overlapping. This article investigates the relationship between immigration into a metropolitan area and that area's crime rate during the 1980s. Using data from the Uniform Crime Reports and the Current Population Surveys, we find, in the cross section, that cities with high crime rates tend to have large numbers of immigrants. However, controlling for the demographic characteristics of the cities, immigrants appear to have no effect on crime rates. In explaining changes in a city's crime rate over time, the flow of immigrants again has no effect, whether or not we control for other city-level characteristics. In a secondary analysis of individual data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NOSY) (sic), we find that youth born abroad are statistically significantly less likely than native-born youth to be criminally active.
	Bibliography Citation Butcher, Kristin F. and Anne Morrison Piehl. "Cross-City Evidence on the Relationship between Immigration and Crime." Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 17,3 (Summer 1998): 457-493.

12.	Butcher, Kristin F. Piehl, Anne Morrison
12.	Cross-City Evidence on the Relationship Between Immigration and Crime Faculty Research Working Paper Series No. R94-26, John F. Kennedy School of Government, HarvardUniversity, September 1994 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: John F. Kennedy School of Government Keyword(s): Crime; Current Population Survey (CPS) / CPS-Fertility Supplement; Delinquency/Gang Activity; Economics, Demographic; Economics, Regional; Ethnic Groups/Ethnicity; Ethnic Studies; Illegal Activities; Immigrants; Modeling; Urbanization/Urban Living Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Public concerns about the costs of immigration and crime are high, and sometimes overlapping. This paper investigates the relationship between immigration into a metropolitan area and that area's crime rate over the 1980's. Using data from the Uniform Crime Reports and the Current Population Surveys, we find, in the cross- section, that cities with high crime rates tend to have large numbers of immigrants. However, controlling for the demographic (racial and ethnic) characteristics of the cities, recent immigrants appear to have no effect on crime rates. Stated differently, crime rates have large city-specific components. When we try to explain changes in the crime rate in a city over time, recent immigration again has no effect. In a secondary analysis of individual data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, we find that youth born abroad are statistically significantly less likely to be criminally active, based on a variety of measures. This record is part of the Abstracts of Working Papers in Economics (AWPE) Database, copyright (c) 1995 Cambridge University Press.
	Bibliography Citation Butcher, Kristin F. and Anne Morrison Piehl. "Cross-City Evidence on the Relationship Between Immigration and Crime." Faculty Research Working Paper Series No. R94-26, John F. Kennedy School of Government, HarvardUniversity, September 1994.

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