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Author: Miller, Amalia Rebecca

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1.	Bailey, Martha J. Hershbein, Brad Miller, Amalia Rebecca
1.	The Opt-In Revolution? Contraception and the Gender Gap in Wages Working Paper No. 17922. National Bureau of Economic Research, March 2012. Also: http://www.nber.org/papers/w17922 Cohort(s): Young Women Publisher: National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) Keyword(s): Career Patterns; Contraception; Gender; Gender Differences; Human Capital; Wage Rates; Wages; Women Decades of research on the U.S. gender gap in wages describes its correlates, but little is known about why women changed their career paths in the 1960s and 1970s. This paper explores the role of “the Pill” in altering women’s human capital investments and its ultimate implications for life-cycle wages. Using state-by-birth-cohort variation in legal access to contraception, we show that younger access to the Pill conferred an 8-percent hourly wage premium by age fifty. Our estimates imply that the Pill can account for 10 percent of the convergence of the gender gap in the 1980s and 30 percent in the 1990s.
	Bibliography Citation Bailey, Martha J., Brad Hershbein and Amalia Rebecca Miller. "The Opt-In Revolution? Contraception and the Gender Gap in Wages." Working Paper No. 17922. National Bureau of Economic Research, March 2012.

2.	Bailey, Martha J. Hershbein, Brad Miller, Amalia Rebecca
2.	The Opt-In Revolution? Contraception and the Gender Gap in Wages American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 4,3 (July 2012): 225-254. Also: https://www.aeaweb.org/articles.php?doi=10.1257/app.4.3.225&fnd=s Cohort(s): Young Women Publisher: American Economic Association Keyword(s): Contraception; Gender Differences; Human Capital; Life Cycle Research; Wage Gap; Wage Penalty/Career Penalty Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Decades of research on the US gender gap in wages describes its correlates, but little is known about why women changed their career paths in the 1960s and 1970s. This paper explores the role of "the Pill" in altering women's human capital investments and its ultimate implications for life-cycle wages. Using state-by-birthcohort variation in legal access, we show that younger access to the Pill conferred an 8 percent hourly wage premium by age 50. Our estimates imply that the Pill can account for 10 percent of the convergence of the gender gap in the 1980s and 30 percent in the 1990s. (JEL J13, J16, J31, J71, J24)
	Bibliography Citation Bailey, Martha J., Brad Hershbein and Amalia Rebecca Miller. "The Opt-In Revolution? Contraception and the Gender Gap in Wages." American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 4,3 (July 2012): 225-254.

3.	Miller, Amalia Rebecca
3.	Motherhood Delay and the Human Capital of the Next Generation Working Paper, Economics Department, University of Virginia, October 24, 2008. Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Economics Department, University of Virginia Keyword(s): Age at First Birth; Contraception; Fertility; Human Capital; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Variables, Instrumental Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper exploits biological fertility shocks as instrumental variables to estimate the effect of motherhood delay on the cognitive ability of the next generation. Using detailed panel data on women in the NLSY79 and their first-born children aged 5 to 14, we find a year of delay leads to significant increases in math and reading scores: a 7 year delay produces gains on par with the black-white score difference. These results reveal a potential weakness of pro-natalist policies promoting early motherhood. While such policies may increase total period fertility rates, they will be less effective at increasing total human capital.
	Bibliography Citation Miller, Amalia Rebecca. "Motherhood Delay and the Human Capital of the Next Generation." Working Paper, Economics Department, University of Virginia, October 24, 2008..

4.	Miller, Amalia Rebecca
4.	Motherhood Delay and the Human Capital of the Next Generation American Economic Review 99,2 (May 2009): 154–158. Also: http://www.aeaweb.org/articles.php?doi=10.1257/aer.99.2.154 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: American Economic Association Keyword(s): Age at First Birth; Armed Forces Qualifications Test (AFQT); Contraception; Fertility; Human Capital; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Variables, Instrumental Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper uses biological fertility shocks as instrumental variables to estimate the causal effect of motherhood delay on the cognitive ability of first children. Maternal age at first birth represents a potential determinant of early human capital formation that reflects choices that respond to financial incentives, cultural norms, and policy environment. The key measures of cognitive ability are Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT) scores. Test scores have long been predictors of individual educational attainment and earnings, and their importance has only increased (Richard Murnane, John Willet, and Frank Levy 1995). At the national level, test performance in mathematics and science is strongly related to economic growth, and may matter more than years of completed schooling (Eric Hanushek and Dennis Kimko 2000). Using data on first-born children age 5 to 14 in the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY79) Children survey, this paper finds delayed motherhood leads to significant increases in PIAT test scores. The relationship is robust to the inclusion of various controls for observable elements of maternal human capital, and the use of instrumental variables to address the potential endogeneity of motherhood timing.
	Bibliography Citation Miller, Amalia Rebecca. "Motherhood Delay and the Human Capital of the Next Generation." American Economic Review 99,2 (May 2009): 154–158. A.

5.	Miller, Amalia Rebecca
5.	Motherhood Delay and the Human Capital of the Next Generation Presented: San Francisco, CA, Annual Meetings of the American Economic Association, January 3-5, 2009 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: American Economic Association Keyword(s): Age at First Birth; Contraception; Fertility; Human Capital; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Variables, Instrumental Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper exploits biological fertility shocks as instrumental variables to estimate the effect of motherhood delay on the cognitive ability of the next generation. Using detailed panel data on women in the NLSY79 and their first-born children aged 5 to 14, we find a year of delay leads to significant increases in math and reading scores: a 7 year delay produces gains on par with the black-white score difference. These results reveal a potential weakness of pro-natalist policies promoting early motherhood. While such policies may increase total period fertility rates, they will be less effective at increasing total human capital.
	Bibliography Citation Miller, Amalia Rebecca. "Motherhood Delay and the Human Capital of the Next Generation." Presented: San Francisco, CA, Annual Meetings of the American Economic Association, January 3-5, 2009.

6.	Miller, Amalia Rebecca
6.	The Effects of Motherhood Timing on Career Path Job Market Paper, Department of Economics, Stanford University, Stanford CA, July 2005. Also: http://www.uic.edu/classes/psych/psych242/Articles/Miller,%20Motherhood%20timing%20-%20income,%202005.pdf Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Department of Economics, Stanford University Keyword(s): Career Patterns; Fertility; Leave, Family or Maternity/Paternity; Wage Rates Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. [First draft January 2003] This paper estimates the effects of motherhood timing on female career path, using national panel data from the NLSY79, and biological fertility shocks as instrumental variables for the age at which a woman bears her first child. Motherhood delay leads to a substantial increase in career earnings, a smaller increase in wage rates, and an increase in career hours worked. The postponement wage premium is largest for college-educated women, and those in professional, managerial, and clerical occupations. Family leave laws do not significantly influence the premium. Conversely, using measured aptitude level as an instrumental variable for expected future earnings, we show that higher expected career earnings lead mothers to postpone childbearing.
	Bibliography Citation Miller, Amalia Rebecca. "The Effects of Motherhood Timing on Career Path." Job Market Paper, Department of Economics, Stanford University, Stanford CA, July 2005.

7.	Miller, Amalia Rebecca
7.	The Effects of Motherhood Timing on Career Path Journal of Population Economics 24,3 (July 2011): 1071-1100. Also: http://www.springerlink.com/content/wt07u085wt87134r/ Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Springer Keyword(s): Career Patterns; Earnings; First Birth; Human Capital; Motherhood; Wage Gap; Wages Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper estimates the effects of motherhood timing on female career path, using biological fertility shocks to instrument for age at first birth. Motherhood delay leads to a substantial increase in earnings of 9% per year of delay, an increase in wages of 3%, and an increase in work hours of 6%. Supporting a human capital story, the advantage is largest for college-educated women and those in professional and managerial occupations. Panel estimation reveals both fixed wage penalties and lower returns to experience for mothers, suggesting that a “mommy track” is the source of the timing effect.
	Bibliography Citation Miller, Amalia Rebecca. "The Effects of Motherhood Timing on Career Path." Journal of Population Economics 24,3 (July 2011): 1071-1100.

8.	Miller, Amalia Rebecca
8.	Three Essays in Empirical Economics Ph.D. Dissertation, Stanford University, 2004. DAI-A 65/09, p. 3487, Mar 2005 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: ProQuest Dissertations & Theses (PQDT) Keyword(s): Age at First Birth; Childbearing; Fertility; Labor Economics; Motherhood; Mothers, Income; Occupations, Female; Variables, Instrumental Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The first essay estimates the effects of motherhood timing on female career path, using national panel data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979, and biological fertility shocks as instrumental variables for the age at which a woman bears her first child. Motherhood delay leads to a substantial increase in career earnings, a smaller increase in wage rates, and an increase in career hours worked. The postponement wage premium is largest for college-educated women, and those in professional and managerial occupations. Conversely, using measured aptitude level as an instrumental variable for expected future earnings, we show that higher expected career earnings lead women to postpone childbearing. The second essay measures the impact of midwifery-promoting public policy on maternity care in the United States, using national Vital Statistics data on births spanning 1989–1999. State laws mandating insurance coverage of midwifery services are associated with an 11- to 17-percentage rise in midwife-attended births. The laws did not increase rates of unassisted vaginal deliveries or lead to consistent effects on maternal mortality or APGAR scores. They did, however, lead to a statistically significant drop in neonatal deaths of about 18/100,000 births. Divergence between OLS and natural experiment estimates suggests that women select into provider groups based on unobserved preferences and health. The third essay considers the effects of the 1992 antitrust case United States v. Airline Tariff Publishing Company on airline competition. As a condition of settlement, the eight defendant airlines agreed to limit their use of the ATP computer system, by refraining from practices that allegedly facilitated collusion such as pre-announcement of fares and inclusion of extraneous information in footnotes and fare codes. The post-settlement period was associated with higher ticket volume. However, growth was larger in control markets than in treatment markets affected by the settlement. Airfares fell in response to the investigation but recovered in response to the settlement. The absence of substantial product market improvements or abnormal stock returns for rival airlines is evidence that the ATP case did not improve airline competition.
	Bibliography Citation Miller, Amalia Rebecca. Three Essays in Empirical Economics. Ph.D. Dissertation, Stanford University, 2004. DAI-A 65/09, p. 3487, Mar 2005.

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