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Author: Farkas, George

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1.	Burnett, Kristin Farkas, George
1.	Poverty and Family Structure Effects on Children's Mathematics Achievement: Estimates from Random and Fixed Effects Models The Social Science Journal, 46,2 (June 2009): 297–318. Also: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0362331908001262 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79 Publisher: Elsevier Keyword(s): Armed Forces Qualifications Test (AFQT); Birth Order; Children, Academic Development; Children, Poverty; Cohabitation; Family Income; Family Structure; Modeling, Fixed Effects; Modeling, Growth Curve/Latent Trajectory Analysis; Parents, Single; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Poverty; Stepfamilies; Variables, Independent - Covariate As children grow up, they may encounter changing family structures and poverty status. Any attempt to measure the effects of these statuses on children's school achievement runs the risk of spurious effects due to child- and family-heterogeneity. An analytic strategy for avoiding these spurious effects is to use longitudinal data on families, children, and their academic achievement to estimate random coefficient growth-curve models in which a large number of causally prior control variables are allowed to impact both the intercept and slope of the child's achievement trajectory, while poverty and family structure at each point in time enter the model as time-varying covariates. An even more powerful strategy is to use Allison's [Allison, P. D. (2005). Fixed effects regression methods for longitudinal data using SAS. Cary, NC: SAS Institute, Inc.] "hybrid" version of this model, in which a fixed-effects specification differences away all unchanging child and family characteristics. We use CNLSY79 data to estimate both types of models for the effects of poverty status and family structure on children's mathematics achievement between ages 5 and 14.We find that poverty status exerts a modest, statistically significant negative effect on math achievement, but only among younger children. The correlation between family structure and children's mathematics achievement is largely spurious, due instead to child- and family-heterogeneity on causally prior variables.
	Bibliography Citation Burnett, Kristin and George Farkas. "Poverty and Family Structure Effects on Children's Mathematics Achievement: Estimates from Random and Fixed Effects Models." The Social Science Journal, 46,2 (June 2009): 297–318. A.

2.	England, Paula A. Farkas, George Kilbourne, Barbara Stanek Dou, Thomas
2.	Explaining Occupational Sex Segregation and Wages: Findings from a Model with Fixed Effects American Sociological Review 53,4 (August 1988): 544-558. Also: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2095848 Cohort(s): Young Men, Young Women Publisher: American Sociological Association Keyword(s): Comparable Worth; Discrimination, Sex; Earnings; Gender Differences; Human Capital Theory; Labor Market Demographics; Marital Status; Modeling, Fixed Effects; Occupational Segregation; Occupations, Female; Racial Differences; Variables, Independent - Covariate; Wage Models Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Does segregation arise because "female" occupations have financial advantages for women planning some years as homeworkers, as human capital theorists claim? Or, do female occupations have low wages that are depressed by the sort of discrimination at issue in "Comparable Worth"? To answer these questions, the authors use a model with fixed effects to predict the earnings of young men and women from a pooled cross-section time-series. A fixed-effects model is ideal for answering these questions because it corrects for the selection bias that results from the tendency of persons who differ on characteristics that are unmeasured but affect earnings to select themselves into different occupations. The data are from the NLS Young Men and Young Women cohorts. Independent variables include years of employment experience, education, marital status, hours worked per week, the sex composition of one's occupation, and measures of occupational skill demands and working conditions taken from the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Separate analyses are performed for white females, black females, white males, and black males. It was found that female occupations do not have the advantages presumed by neoclassical writers. Rather, there is evidence of pay discrimination against men or women in predominantly female occupations. Findings are interpreted using economic and sociological theories of labor markets.
	Bibliography Citation England, Paula A., George Farkas, Barbara Stanek Kilbourne and Thomas Dou. "Explaining Occupational Sex Segregation and Wages: Findings from a Model with Fixed Effects." American Sociological Review 53,4 (August 1988): 544-558.

3.	England, Paula A. Reid, Lori Lynn Kilbourne, Barbara Stanek Farkas, George
3.	Devaluation of Female Jobs: Findings from the NLSY Presented: Washington, DC, American Sociological Association Annual Meetings, August 1995 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: American Sociological Association Keyword(s): Comparable Worth; Economics of Gender; Gender Differences; Human Capital; Job Analysis; Job Requirements; Occupational Segregation; Occupations, Female; Sexual Division of Labor; Skills; Wage Determination; Wage Levels; Wages, Women; Women's Studies; Working Conditions Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Research on comparable worth suggests that employers do not set the wage band for a job according to job content alone, but rather that the sex or race composition of job incumbents biases this assessment. Here, tested is the hypothesis that, net of individuals' human capital, and net of job demands (for skill or difficult working conditions), jobs with a higher proportion of women offer lower wages to all workers in the job. The analysis uses measures of sex composition that pertain to more detailed job categories than used in prior research. Estimated are the net effects of the % female in these categories, using pooled panel data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, 1979-1987. It is concluded that jobs are devalued when they contain more females; employers offer lower wages in such jobs than in more heavily male jobs with comparable characteristics. (Copyright 1995, Sociological Abstracts, Inc., all rights reserved.)
	Bibliography Citation England, Paula A., Lori Lynn Reid, Barbara Stanek Kilbourne and George Farkas. "Devaluation of Female Jobs: Findings from the NLSY." Presented: Washington, DC, American Sociological Association Annual Meetings, August 1995.

4.	Farkas, George
4.	How Educational Inequality Develops In: The Colors of Poverty: Why Racial and Ethnic Disparities Exist. A. C. Lin and D. R. Harris eds. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 2008: pp. 105-134 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79 Publisher: Russell Sage Foundation Keyword(s): Children, Poverty; Language Development; Modeling, Multilevel; Parents, Single; Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT); Poverty; Racial Differences; Social Environment
	Bibliography Citation Farkas, George. "How Educational Inequality Develops" In: The Colors of Poverty: Why Racial and Ethnic Disparities Exist. A. C. Lin and D. R. Harris eds. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 2008: pp. 105-134

5.	Farkas, George Beron, Kurt
5.	Family Linguistic Culture and Social Reproduction: Verbal Skill from Parent to Child in the Preschool and School Years Working Paper 01-05, Population Research Institute, March 2001. Also: http://www.pop.psu.edu/general/pubs/working_papers/psu-pri/wp0105.pdf. Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79 Publisher: Population Research Institute, The Pennsylvania State University Keyword(s): Armed Forces Qualifications Test (AFQT); Ethnic Differences; Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Intergenerational Patterns/Transmission; Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT); Peers/Peer influence/Peer relations; Socioeconomic Factors Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Also: Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Meetings, March 2001. We use the NLSY data so as to reveal unprecedented detail on the age pattern of oral vocabulary growth. Separately for Whites and Blacks, we find that social class differences in vocabulary growth emerge at the very earliest ages, and attain a substantial magnitude by 36 months of age. These social class differences continue to widen during ages three and four, although this occurs more strongly among African-Americans than among Whites. Approximately half of these social class differences in vocabulary growth rates can be attributed to the differential family linguistic instruction provided by mothers of varying social classes. These early language instruction differences are quite consequential for later cognitive and school performance. By age five and above, vocabulary growth rates are relatively similar across social classes. This suggests that attendance in kindergarten and the higher school grades has an equalizing effect as children from a lower social strata are exposed to teacher and peer social interaction and school instruction. Implications are drawn for our understanding of the causal mechanisms underlying social reproduction and interventions and policies to reduce it.
	Bibliography Citation Farkas, George and Kurt Beron. "Family Linguistic Culture and Social Reproduction: Verbal Skill from Parent to Child in the Preschool and School Years." Working Paper 01-05, Population Research Institute, March 2001.

6.	Farkas, George Beron, Kurt
6.	The Detailed Age Trajectory of Oral Vocabulary Knowledge: Differences by Class and Race Social Science Research 33,3 (September 2004): 464-497. Also: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0049089X03000772 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79 Publisher: Academic Press, Inc. Keyword(s): Armed Forces Qualifications Test (AFQT); Ethnic Differences; Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Language Development; Modeling, Growth Curve/Latent Trajectory Analysis; Modeling, Multilevel; Parents, Single; Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT); Racial Differences; Social Environment; Socioeconomic Factors An earlier version of this paper was presented at the Annual Meetings of the Population Association of America, Washington, DC, March 31, 2001. Data from the Children of the NLSY79 (CNLSY) are pooled together across survey waves, 1986-2000, to provide an unusually large sample size, as well as two or more observations at different time points for many children, recorded at single months of age between 36 and 156 months. We fit a variety of multilevel growth models to these data. We find that by 36 months of age, large net social class and Black-White vocabulary knowledge gaps have already emerged. By 60 months of age, when kindergarten typically begins, the Black-White vocabulary gap approximates the level it maintains through to 13 years of age. Net social class differences are also large at 36 months. For whites, these cease widening thereafter. For Blacks, they widen until 60 months of age, and then cease widening. We view these vocabulary differences as achieved outcomes, and find that they are only very partially explained by measures of the mother's vocabulary knowledge and home cognitive support. We conclude that stratification studies as well as program interventions should focus increased effort on caregiver behaviors that stimulate oral language development from birth through age three, when class and race gaps in vocabulary knowledge emerge and take on values close to their final forms. [Copyright 2003 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.]
	Bibliography Citation Farkas, George and Kurt Beron. "The Detailed Age Trajectory of Oral Vocabulary Knowledge: Differences by Class and Race." Social Science Research 33,3 (September 2004): 464-497.

7.	Farkas, George England, Paula A. Vicknair, Keven Kilbourne, Barbara Stanek
7.	Cognitive Skill, Skill Demands of Jobs, and Earnings Among Young European American, African American, and Mexican American Workers Social Forces 75, 3 (March 1997): 913-940. Also: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2580524 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: University of North Carolina Press Keyword(s): Cognitive Ability; Earnings; Education; Ethnic Differences; Gender Differences; Racial Differences; Skills; Test Scores/Test theory/IRT; Wage Gap; Work Experience Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Do the cognitive skills possessed by an individual affect access to more cognitively demanding occupations and hence to the associated higher earnings? To what extent do difference between African Americans, U.S.-born Mexican Americans, and European Americans (Whites) in average cognitive skills account for the lower-skilled jobs and lower earnings of African Americans and Mexican Americans? From analyses of 1991 National Longitudinal Survey (NLSY) data for six groups defined by ethnicity and gender, we found that individual cognitive skill level (as standardized test scores) affects access to occupations requiring more cognitive skill and affects wages levels, even when controlling for education, work experience and other factors. Most of the effect of cognitive skills on earnings is direct; a smaller portion is indirect, through access to occupations requiring more cognitive skill. The lower average cognitive skill levels for African Americans and Mexican Americans explain a substantial proportion of the earnings gaps between these groups European Americans. By contrast, cognition skills explain none of the gender gap in pay within ethnic groups. We conclude that to understand or alter racial or ethnic inequalities in earnings, scholars and policy-maters must attend to social sources of group differences in cognition skills, such as school, family, and neighborhood experiences.
	Bibliography Citation Farkas, George, Paula A. England, Keven Vicknair and Barbara Stanek Kilbourne. "Cognitive Skill, Skill Demands of Jobs, and Earnings Among Young European American, African American, and Mexican American Workers." Social Forces 75, 3 (March 1997): 913-940.

8.	Farkas, George Vicknair, Keven
8.	Appropriate Tests of Racial Wage Discrimination Require Controls for Cognitive Skill: Comment on Cancio, Evans, and Maume American Sociological Review 61,4 (August 1996): 557-560. Also: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2096392 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: American Sociological Association Keyword(s): Discrimination, Racial/Ethnic; Modeling; Racial Differences; Wage Differentials; Wage Gap Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. In "Reconsidering the Declining Significance of Race: Racial Differences in Early Career Wages" (see abstract), A. Silvia Cancio, T. David Evans, & David J. Maume, Jr., claim that racial wage discrimination increased after 1976. Here, it is argued that Cancio, Evans, & Maume omitted a key control variable - cognitive skill - from the regression performed. Analysis is based on data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth on male workers ages 26-33 who held full-time jobs in 1991 (N not specified). A regression model that controls for cognitive skill, measured by tests conducted in 1980 when Ss were ages 15-22, is found to explain 109% of the wage gap, thus eliminating the finding of race discrimination against black men. 1 Table. B. Jones (Copyright 1997, Sociological Abstracts, Inc., all rights reserved.)
	Bibliography Citation Farkas, George and Keven Vicknair. "Appropriate Tests of Racial Wage Discrimination Require Controls for Cognitive Skill: Comment on Cancio, Evans, and Maume." American Sociological Review 61,4 (August 1996): 557-560.

9.	Hall, Matthew Farkas, George
9.	Adolescent Cognitive Skills, Attitudinal/Behavioral Traits and Career Wages Social Forces 89,4 (June 2011): 1261-1285. Also: http://sf.oxfordjournals.org/content/89/4/1261.abstract Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: University of North Carolina Press Keyword(s): Armed Forces Qualifications Test (AFQT); Attitudes; Behavioral Differences; Cognitive Ability; Educational Aspirations/Expectations; Ethnic Groups; Locus of Control (see Rotter Scale); Self-Esteem; Self-Reporting Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. We use panel data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY79) to estimate the effects of cognitive skills (measured by the Armed Forces Qualification Test) and attitudinal/behavioral traits (a latent factor based on self-reported self-esteem, locus of control, educational aspirations and educational expectations) on career wage trajectories of white, black and Latino/a men and women. We find that both cognitive and attitudinal/behavioral traits affect initial wages and wage growth, above and beyond their effects on schooling and transcript-reported high school grades. The relative size of these effects, however, varies by race/ethnicity. We also show that black and Latino men, and black women have substantially flatter wage trajectories than white men and women. Using wage decomposition techniques, we find that the lower wages of these groups are partially, but not fully, accounted for by group differences in cognitive skill and attitudinal/behavioral traits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] Copyright of Social Forces is the property of University of North Carolina Press and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
	Bibliography Citation Hall, Matthew and George Farkas. "Adolescent Cognitive Skills, Attitudinal/Behavioral Traits and Career Wages." Social Forces 89,4 (June 2011): 1261-1285.

10.	Kilbourne, Barbara Stanek Farkas, George Beron, Kurt Weir, Dorothea England, Paula A.
10.	Returns to Skill, Compensating Differentials, and Gender Bias: Effects of Occupational Characteristics on the Wages of White Women and Men American Journal of Sociology 100,3 (November 1994): 689-719. Also: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2782402 Cohort(s): Young Men, Young Women Publisher: University of Chicago Press Keyword(s): Educational Returns; Gender Differences; Human Capital Theory; Job Skills; Modeling, Fixed Effects; Skills; Unions; Wage Gap; Wages, Women Gender differences in the earnings of white US workers are decomposed using a regression model with fixed-effects & national individual-level panel data from the 1966-1981 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (N = approximately 10,000 respondents ages 14-24 at initial sampling). In accordance with neoclassical predictions from human capital theory, net positive returns to individuals' education & experience & to occupations' cognitive physical skills are found. While sex differences in experience have large effects on the sex gap, skill contributes little. In accordance with cultural feminist predictions, negative returns to being in an occupation with a higher % of females or requiring more nurturant social skills are found. These forms of gendered valuation contribute significantly to the sex gap in pay. In contrast to the neoclassical prediction of compensating differentials, there are no consistently positive effects for onerous physical conditions, nor do these have much effect on the gap. 2 Tables, 1 Appendix, 54 References. Adapted from the source document. (Copyright 1995, Sociological Abstracts, Inc., all rights reserved.)
	Bibliography Citation Kilbourne, Barbara Stanek, George Farkas, Kurt Beron, Dorothea Weir and Paula A. England. "Returns to Skill, Compensating Differentials, and Gender Bias: Effects of Occupational Characteristics on the Wages of White Women and Men." American Journal of Sociology 100,3 (November 1994): 689-719.

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